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The Game of Logic CHAPTER-I November 20, 2007

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CHAPTER I.

III. CROOKED ANSWERS. 1. Elementary . . . . . . . . 55 2. Half of Smaller Diagram. Propositions
represented . . . . . . . 59 3. Do. Symbols interpreted . . . 61 4. Smaller Diagram. Propositions represented. 62 5.
Do. Symbols interpreted . . . 65 6. Larger Diagram. Propositions represented. 67 7. Both Diagrams employed .
. . . 72
IV. HIT OR MISS . . . . . . . . . 85
CHAPTER I.

NEW LAMPS FOR OLD.

“Light come, light go.” _________

1. Propositions.
“Some new Cakes are nice.” “No new Cakes are nice.” “All new cakes are nice.”

There are three ‘PROPOSITIONS’ for you–the only three kinds we are going to use in this Game: and the
first thing to be done is to learn how to express them on the Board.

Let us begin with

“Some new Cakes are nice.”

But before doing so, a remark has to be made–one that is rather important, and by no means easy to
understand all in a moment: so please to read this VERY carefully.

The world contains many THINGS (such as “Buns”, “Babies”, “Beetles”. “Battledores”. &c.); and these
Things possess many ATTRIBUTES (such as “baked”, “beautiful”, “black”, “broken”, &c.: in fact, whatever
can be “attributed to”, that is “said to belong to”, any Thing, is an Attribute). Whenever we wish to mention a
Thing, we use a SUBSTANTIVE: when we wish to mention an Attribute, we use an ADJECTIVE. People
have asked the question “Can a Thing exist without any Attributes belonging to it?” It is a very puzzling
question, and I’m not going to try to answer it: let us turn up our noses, and treat it with contemptuous silence,
as if it really wasn’t worth noticing. But, if they put it the other way, and ask “Can an Attribute exist without
any Thing for it to belong to?”, we may say at once “No: no more than a Baby could go a railway-journey
with no one to take care of it!” You never saw “beautiful” floating about in the air, or littered about on the
floor, without any Thing to BE beautiful, now did you?

And now what am I driving at, in all this long rigmarole? It is this. You may put “is” or “are” between names
of two THINGS (for example, “some Pigs are fat Animals”), or between the names of two ATTRIBUTES (for
example, “pink is light-red”), and in each case it will make good sense. But, if you put “is” or “are” between
the name of a THING and the name of an ATTRIBUTE (for example, “some Pigs are pink”), you do NOT
make good sense (for how can a Thing BE an Attribute?) unless you have an understanding with the person to
whom you are speaking. And the simplest understanding would, I think, be this–that the Substantive shall be
supposed to be repeated at the end of the sentence, so that the sentence, if written out in full, would be “some
Pigs are pink (Pigs)”. And now the word “are” makes quite good sense.

Thus, in order to make good sense of the Proposition “some new Cakes are nice”, we must suppose it to be
written out in full, in the form “some new Cakes are nice (Cakes)”. Now this contains two ‘TERMS’–”new
Cakes” being one of them, and “nice (Cakes)” the other. “New Cakes,” being the one we are talking about, is
called the ‘SUBJECT’ of the Proposition, and “nice (Cakes)” the ‘PREDICATE’. Also this Proposition is said
CHAPTER I.

to be a ‘PARTICULAR’ one, since it does not speak of the WHOLE of its Subject, but only of a PART of it.
The other two kinds are said to be ‘UNIVERSAL’, because they speak of the WHOLE of their Subjects–the
one denying niceness, and the other asserting it, of the WHOLE class of “new Cakes”. Lastly, if you would
like to have a definition of the word ‘PROPOSITION’ itself, you may take this:–”a sentence stating that
some, or none, or all, of the Things belonging to a certain class, called its ‘Subject’, are also Things belonging
to a certain other class, called its ‘Predicate’”.

You will find these seven words–PROPOSITION, ATTRIBUTE, TERM, SUBJECT, PREDICATE,
PARTICULAR, UNIVERSAL–charmingly useful, if any friend should happen to ask if you have ever
studied Logic. Mind you bring all seven words into your answer, and you friend will go away deeply
impressed–’a sadder and a wiser man’.

Now please to look at the smaller Diagram on the Board, and suppose it to be a cupboard, intended for all the
Cakes in the world (it would have to be a good large one, of course). And let us suppose all the new ones to be
put into the upper half (marked ‘x’), and all the rest (that is, the NOT-new ones) into the lower half (marked
‘x”). Thus the lower half would contain ELDERLY Cakes, AGED Cakes, ANTE-DILUVIAN Cakes–if
there are any: I haven’t seen many, myself–and so on. Let us also suppose all the nice Cakes to be put into
the left-hand half (marked ‘y’), and all the rest (that is, the not-nice ones) into the right-hand half (marked
‘y”). At present, then, we must understand x to mean “new”, x’ “not-new”, y “nice”, and y’ “not-nice.”

And now what kind of Cakes would you expect to find in compartment No. 5?

It is part of the upper half, you see; so that, if it has any Cakes in it, they must be NEW: and it is part of the
left-hand half; so that they must be NICE. Hence if there are any Cakes in this compartment, they must have
the double ‘ATTRIBUTE’ “new and nice”: or, if we use letters, the must be “x y.”

Observe that the letters x, y are written on two of the edges of this compartment. This you will find a very
convenient rule for knowing what Attributes belong to the Things in any compartment. Take No. 7, for
instance. If there are any Cakes there, they must be “x’ y”, that is, they must be “not-new and nice.”

Now let us make another agreement–that a red counter in a compartment shall mean that it is ‘OCCUPIED’,
that is, that there are SOME Cakes in it. (The word ‘some,’ in Logic, means ‘one or more’ so that a single Cake
in a compartment would be quite enough reason for saying “there are SOME Cakes here”). Also let us agree
that a grey counter in a compartment shall mean that it is ‘EMPTY’, that is that there are NO Cakes in it. In the
following Diagrams, I shall put ’1′ (meaning ‘one or more’) where you are to put a RED counter, and ’0′
(meaning ‘none’) where you are to put a GREY one.

As the Subject of our Proposition is to be “new Cakes”, we are only concerned, at present, with the UPPER
half of the cupboard, where all the Cakes have the attribute x, that is, “new.”

Now, fixing our attention on this upper half, suppose we found it marked like this,

———– | | | | 1 | | | | | ———–

that is, with a red counter in No. 5. What would this tell us, with regard to the class of “new Cakes”?

Would it not tell us that there are SOME of them in the x y-compartment? That is, that some of them (besides
having the Attribute x, which belongs to both compartments) have the Attribute y (that is, “nice”). This we
might express by saying “some x-Cakes are y-(Cakes)”, or, putting words instead of letters,

“Some new Cakes are nice (Cakes)”,
CHAPTER I.

or, in a shorter form,
“Some new Cakes are nice”
.
At last we have found out how to represent the first Proposition of this Section. If you have not CLEARLY
understood all I have said, go no further, but read it over and over again, till you DO understand it. After that
is once mastered, you will find all the rest quite easy.
It will save a little trouble, in doing the other Propositions, if we agree to leave out the word “Cakes”
altogether. I find it convenient to call the whole class of Things, for which the cupboard is intended, the
‘UNIVERSE.’ Thus we might have begun this business by saying “Let us take a Universe of Cakes.” (Sounds
nice, doesn’t it?
)
Of course any other Things would have done just as well as Cakes. We might make Propositions about “a
Universe of Lizards”, or even “a Universe of Hornets”. (Wouldn’t THAT be a charming Universe to live in?)
So far, then, we have learned that
———– | | | | 1 | | | | | ———–
means “some x and y,” i.e. “some new are nice.”
I think you will see without further explanation, that
———– | | | | | 1 | | | | ———–
means “some x are y’,” i.e. “some new are not-nice.”
Now let us put a GREY counter into No. 5, and ask ourselves the meaning of

———– | | | | 0 | | | | | ———–
This tells us that the x y-compartment is EMPTY, which we may express by “no x are y”, or, “no new Cakes
are nice”. This is the second of the three Propositions at the head of this Section.

In the same way,
———– | | | | | 0 | | | | ———-
-
would mean “no x are y’,” or, “no new Cakes are not-nice.
“
What would you make of this, I wonder?
———– | | | | 1 | 1 | | | | ———-
-
I hope you will not have much trouble in making out that this represents a DOUBLE Proposition: namely,
“some x are y, AND some are y’,” i.e. “some new are nice, and some are not-nice.
“
The following is a little harder, perhaps:
———– | | | | 0 | 0 | | | | ———-
-

CHAPTER I.

This means “no x are y, AND none are y’,” i.e. “no new are nice, AND none are not-nice”: which leads to the
rather curious result that “no new exist,” i.e. “no Cakes are new.” This is because “nice” and “not-nice” make
what we call an ‘EXHAUSTIVE’ division of the class “new Cakes”: i.e. between them, they EXAUST the
whole class, so that all the new Cakes, that exist, must be found in one or the other of them.

And now suppose you had to represent, with counters the contradictory to “no Cakes are new”, which would
be “some Cakes are new”, or, putting letters for words, “some Cakes are x”, how would you do it?

This will puzzle you a little, I expect. Evidently you must put a red counter SOMEWHERE in the x-half of
the cupboard, since you know there are SOME new Cakes. But you must not put it into the LEFT-HAND
compartment, since you do not know them to be NICE: nor may you put it into the RIGHT-HAND one, since
you do not know them to be NOT-NICE.

What, then, are you to do? I think the best way out of the difficulty is to place the red counter ON THE
DIVISION-LINE between the xy-compartment and the xy’-compartment. This I shall represent (as I always
put ’1′ where you are to put a red counter) by the diagram

———– | | | | -1- | | | | ———–

Our ingenious American cousins have invented a phrase to express the position of a man who wants to join
one or the other of two parties–such as their two parties ‘Democrats’ and ‘Republicans’–but can’t make up
his mind WHICH. Such a man is said to be “sitting on the fence.” Now that is exactly the position of the red
counter you have just placed on the division-line. He likes the look of No. 5, and he likes the look of No. 6,
and he doesn’t know WHICH to jump down into. So there he sits astride, silly fellow, dangling his legs, one
on each side of the fence!

Now I am going to give you a much harder one to make out. What does this mean?

———– | | | | 1 | 0 | | | | ———–

This is clearly a DOUBLE Proposition. It tells us not only that “some x are y,” but also the “no x are NOT y.”
Hence the result is “ALL x are y,” i.e. “all new Cakes are nice”, which is the last of the three Propositions at
the head of this Section.

We see, then, that the Universal Proposition

“All new Cakes are nice”

consists of TWO Propositions taken together, namely,

“Some new Cakes are nice,” and “No new Cakes are not-nice.”

In the same way

———– | | | | 0 | 1 | | | | ———–

would mean “all x are y’ “, that is,

“All new Cakes are not-nice.”

Now what would you make of such a Proposition as “The Cake you have given me is nice”? Is it Particular or
Universal?
CHAPTER I.

“Particular, of course,” you readily reply. “One single Cake is hardly worth calling ‘some,’ even.”

No, my dear impulsive Reader, it is ‘Universal’. Remember that, few as they are (and I grant you they couldn’t
well be fewer), they are (or rather ‘it is’) ALL that you have given me! Thus, if (leaving ‘red’ out of the
question) I divide my Universe of Cakes into two classes–the Cakes you have given me (to which I assign
the upper half of the cupboard), and those you HAVEN’T given me (which are to go below)–I find the lower
half fairly full, and the upper one as nearly as possible empty. And then, when I am told to put an upright
division into each half, keeping the NICE Cakes to the left, and the NOT-NICE ones to the right, I begin by
carefully collecting ALL the Cakes you have given me (saying to myself, from time to time, “Generous
creature! How shall I ever repay such kindness?”), and piling them up in the left-hand compartment. AND IT
DOESN’T TAKE LONG TO DO IT!

Here is another Universal Proposition for you. “Barzillai Beckalegg is an honest man.” That means “ALL the
Barzillai Beckaleggs, that I am now considering, are honest men.” (You think I invented that name, now don’t
you? But I didn’t. It’s on a carrier’s cart, somewhere down in Cornwall.)

This kind of Universal Proposition(where the Subject is a single Thing) is called an ‘INDIVIDUAL’
Proposition.

Now let us take “NICE Cakes” as the Subject of Proposition: that is, let us fix our thoughts on the
LEFT-HAND half of the cupboard, where all the Cakes have attribute y, that is, “nice.”

—– Suppose we find it marked like this:– | | | 1 | What would that tell us? | | —– | | | | | | —–

I hope that it is not necessary, after explaining the HORIZONTAL oblong so fully, to spend much time over
the UPRIGHT one. I hope you will see, for yourself, that this means “some y are x”, that is,

“Some nice Cakes are new.”

“But,” you will say, “we have had this case before. You put a red counter into No. 5, and you told us it meant
‘some new Cakes are nice’; and NOW you tell us that it means ‘some NICE Cakes are NEW’! Can it mean
BOTH?”

The question is a very thoughtful one, and does you GREAT credit, dear Reader! It DOES mean both. If you
choose to take x (that is, “new Cakes”) as your Subject, and to regard No. 5 as part of a HORIZONTAL
oblong, you may read it “some x are y”, that is, “some new Cakes are nice”: but, if you choose to take y (that
is, “nice Cake”) as your Subject, and to regard No. 5 as part of an UPRIGHT oblong, THEN you may read it
“some y are x”, that is, “some nice Cakes are new”. They are merely two different ways of expressing the very
same truth.

Without more words, I will simply set down the other ways in which this upright oblong might be marked,
adding the meaning in each case. By comparing them with the various cases of the horizontal oblong, you
will, I hope, be able to understand them clearly.

You will find it a good plan to examine yourself on this table, by covering up first one column and then the
other, and ‘dodging about’, as the children say.

Also you will do well to write out for yourself two other tables–one for the LOWER half of the cupboard,
and the other for its RIGHT-HAND half.

And now I think we have said all we need to say about the smaller Diagram, and may go on to the larger one.
CHAPTER I.

_________________________________________________ | Symbols. | Meanings.
_______________|_________________________________ —– | | | | | | | Some y are x’; | | | i.e. Some nice
are not-new. —– | | | | | 1 | | | | | —– | | —– | | | | No y are x; | 0 | | i.e. No nice are new. | | | —– |
[Observe that this is merely another way of | | | expressing "No new are nice."] | | | | | | —– | | —– | | | | | | |
No y are x’; | | | i.e. No nice are not-new. —– | | | | | 0 | | | | | —– | | —– | | | | | 1 | | Some y are x, and
some are x’; | | | i.e. Some nice are new, and some are —– | not-new. | | | | 1 | | | | | —– | | —– | | | | | 0 |
| No y are x, and none are x’; i.e. No y | | | exist; —– | i.e. No Cakes are nice. | | | | 0 | | | | | —– | | —– |
| | | | 1 | | All y are x; | | | i.e. All nice are new. —– | | | | | 0 | | | | | —– | | —– | | | | | 0 | | All y are x’; | | |

i.e. All nice are not-new. —– | | | | | 1 | | | | | —– |
_______________|_________________________________
This may be taken to be a cupboard divided in the same way as the last, but ALSO divided into two portions,
for the Attribute m. Let us give to m the meaning “wholesome”: and let us suppose that all WHOLESOME
Cakes are placed INSIDE the central Square, and all the UNWHOLESOME ones OUTSIDE it, that is, in one
or other of the four queer-shaped OUTER compartments.

We see that, just as, in the smaller Diagram, the Cakes in each compartment had TWO Attributes, so, here, the
Cakes in each compartment have THREE Attributes: and, just as the letters, representing the TWO Attributes,
were written on the EDGES of the compartment, so, here, they are written at the CORNERS. (Observe that m’
is supposed to be written at each of the four outer corners.) So that we can tell in a moment, by looking at a
compartment, what three Attributes belong to the Things in it. For instance, take No. 12. Here we find x, y’,
m, at the corners: so we know that the Cakes in it, if there are any, have the triple Attribute, ‘xy’m', that is,
“new, not-nice, and wholesome.” Again, take No. 16. Here we find, at the corners, x’, y’, m’: so the Cakes in it
are “not-new, not-nice, and unwholesome.” (Remarkably untempting Cakes!)

It would take far too long to go through all the Propositions, containing x and y, x and m, and y and m which
can be represented on this diagram (there are ninety-six altogether, so I am sure you will excuse me!) and I
must content myself with doing two or three, as specimens. You will do well to work out a lot more for
yourself.

Taking the upper half by itself, so that our Subject is “new Cakes”, how are we to represent “no new Cakes are
wholesome”?

This is, writing letters for words, “no x are m.” Now this tells us that none of the Cakes, belonging to the
upper half of the cupboard, are to be found INSIDE the central Square: that is, the two compartments, No. 11
and No. 12, are EMPTY. And this, of course, is represented by

——————- | | | | _____|_____ | | | | | | | | 0 | 0 | | | | | | | ——————-

And now how are we to represent the contradictory Proposition “SOME x are m”? This is a difficulty I have
already considered. I think the best way is to place a red counter ON THE DIVISION-LINE between No. 11
and No. 12, and to understand this to mean that ONE of the two compartments is ‘occupied,’ but that we do
not at present know WHICH. This I shall represent thus:–

——————- | | | | _____|_____ | | | | | | | | -1- | | | | | | | ——————-

Now let us express “all x are m.”

This consists, we know, of TWO Propositions,

“Some x are m,” and “No x are m’.”
CHAPTER I.

Let us express the negative part first. This tells us that none of the Cakes, belonging to the upper half of the
cupboard, are to be found OUTSIDE the central Square: that is, the two compartments, No. 9 and No. 10, are
EMPTY. This, of course, is represented by

——————- | 0 | 0 | | _____|_____ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ——————-
But we have yet to represent “Some x are m.” This tells us that there are SOME Cakes in the oblong

consisting of No. 11 and No. 12: so we place our red counter, as in the previous example, on the division-line
between No. 11 and No. 12, and the result is
——————- | 0 | 0 | | _____|_____ | | | | | | | | -1- | | | | | | | ——————-
Now let us try one or two interpretations.
What are we to make of this, with regard to x and y?
——————- | | 0 | | _____|_____ | | | | | | | | 1 | 0 | | | | | | | ——————-
This tells us, with regard to the xy’-Square, that it is wholly ‘empty’, since BOTH compartments are so

marked. With regard to the xy-Square, it tells us that it is ‘occupied’. True, it is only ONE compartment of it
that is so marked; but that is quite enough, whether the other be ‘occupied’ or ‘empty’, to settle the fact that
there is SOMETHING in the Square.

If, then, we transfer our marks to the smaller Diagram, so as to get rid of the m-subdivisions, we have a right
to mark it
———– | | | | 1 | 0 | | | | ———–
which means, you know, “all x are y.”
The result would have been exactly the same, if the given oblong had been marked thus:–
——————- | 1 | 0 | | _____|_____ | | | | | | | | | 0 | | | | | | | ——————-
Once more: how shall we interpret this, with regard to x and y?

——————- | 0 | 1 | | _____|_____ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ——————-
This tells us, as to the xy-Square, that ONE of its compartments is ‘empty’. But this information is quite
useless, as there is no mark in the OTHER compartment. If the other compartment happened to be ‘empty’ too,
the Square would be ‘empty’: and, if it happened to be ‘occupied’, the Square would be ‘occupied’. So, as we do
not know WHICH is the case, we can say nothing about THIS Square.

The other Square, the xy’-Square, we know (as in the previous example) to be ‘occupied’.
If, then, we transfer our marks to the smaller Diagram, we get merely this:–
———– | | | | | 1 | | | | ———–
which means, you know, “some x are y’.”
These principles may be applied to all the other oblongs. For instance, to represent “all y’ are m’” we should
CHAPTER I.

mark the ——- RIGHT-HAND UPRIGHT OBLONG (the one | | that has the attribute y’) thus:– |— | |
0 | | |—|-1-| | 0 | | |— | | | ——-

and, if we were told to interpret the lower half of the cupboard, marked as follows, with regard to x and y,

——————- | | | | | | | | 0 | | | | | | | | —–|—– | | 1 | 0 | ——————-

we should transfer it to the smaller Diagram thus,

———– | | | | 1 | 0 | | | | ———–

and read it “all x’ are y.”

Two more remarks about Propositions need to be made.

One is that, in every Proposition beginning with “some” or “all”, the ACTUAL EXISTENCE of the ‘Subject’
is asserted. If, for instance, I say “all misers are selfish,” I mean that misers ACTUALLY EXIST. If I wished
to avoid making this assertion, and merely to state the LAW that miserliness necessarily involves selfishness,
I should say “no misers are unselfish” which does not assert that any misers exist at all, but merely that, if any
DID exist, they WOULD be selfish.

The other is that, when a Proposition begins with “some” or “no”, and contains more that two Attributes, these
Attributes may be re-arranged, and shifted from one Term to the other, “ad libitum.” For example, “some abc
are def” may be re-arranged as “some bf are acde,” each being equivalent to “some Things are abcdef”. Again
“No wise old men are rash and reckless gamblers” may be re-arranged as “No rash old gamblers are wise and
reckless,” each being equivalent to “No men are wise old rash reckless gamblers.”

2. Syllogisms
Now suppose we divide our Universe of Things in three ways, with regard to three different Attributes. Out of
these three Attributes, we may make up three different couples (for instance, if they were a, b, c, we might
make up the three couples ab, ac, bc). Also suppose we have two Propositions given us, containing two of
these three couples, and that from them we can prove a third Proposition containing the third couple. (For
example, if we divide our Universe for m, x, and y; and if we have the two Propositions given us, “no m are x’
” and “all m’ are y “, containing the two couples mx and my, it might be possible to prove from them a third
Proposition, containing x and y.)

In such a case we call the given Propositions ‘THE PREMISSES’, the third one ‘THE CONCLUSION’ and the
whole set ‘A SYLLOGISM’.

Evidently, ONE of the Attributes must occur in both Premisses; or else one must occur in ONE Premiss, and
its CONTRADICTORY in the other.

In the first case (when, for example, the Premisses are “some m are x” and “no m are y’”) the Term, which
occurs twice, is called ‘THE MIDDLE TERM’, because it serves as a sort of link between the other two
Terms.

In the second case (when, for example, the Premisses are “no m are x’” and “all m’ are y”) the two Terms,
which contain these contradictory Attributes, may be called ‘THE MIDDLE TERMS’.

Thus, in the first case, the class of “m-Things” is the Middle Term; and, in the second case, the two classes of
“m-Things” and “m’-Things” are the Middle Terms.
CHAPTER I.

The Attribute, which occurs in the Middle Term or Terms, disappears in the Conclusion, and is said to be
“eliminated”, which literally means “turned out of doors”.

Now let us try to draw a Conclusion from the two Premisses–

“Some new Cakes are unwholesome; No nice Cakes are unwholesome.”

In order to express them with counters, we need to divide Cakes in THREE different ways, with regard to
newness, to niceness, and to wholesomeness. For this we must use the larger Diagram, making x mean “new”,
y “nice”, and m “wholesome”. (Everything INSIDE the central Square is supposed to have the attribute m, and
everything OUTSIDE it the attribute m’, i.e. “not-m”.)

You had better adopt the rule to make m mean the Attribute which occurs in the MIDDLE Term or Terms. (I
have chosen m as the symbol, because ‘middle’ begins with ‘m’.)

Now, in representing the two Premisses, I prefer to begin with the NEGATIVE one (the one beginning with
“no”), because GREY counters can always be placed with CERTAINTY, and will then help to fix the position
of the red counters, which are sometimes a little uncertain where they will be most welcome.

Let us express, the “no nice Cakes are unwholesome (Cakes)”, i.e. “no y-Cakes are m’-(Cakes)”. This tells us
that none of the Cakes belonging to the y-half of the cupboard are in its m’-compartments(i.e. the ones
outside the central Square). Hence the two compartments, No. 9 and No. 15, are both ‘EMPTY’; and we must
place a grey counter in EACH of them, thus:–

———– |0 | | | –|– | | | | | | |–|—–|–| | | | | | | –|– | |0 | | ———–

We have now to express the other Premiss, namely, “some new Cakes are unwholesome (Cakes)”, i.e. “some
x-Cakes are m’-(Cakes)”. This tells us that some of the Cakes in the x-half of the cupboard are in its
m’-compartments. Hence ONE of the two compartments, No. 9 and No. 10, is ‘occupied’: and, as we are not
told in WHICH of these two compartments to place the red counter, the usual rule would be to lay it on the
division-line between them: but, in this case, the other Premiss has settled the matter for us, by declaring No.
9 to be EMPTY. Hence the red counter has no choice, and MUST go into No. 10, thus:–

———– |0 | 1| | –|– | | | | | | |–|—–|–| | | | | | | –|– | |0 | | ———–

And now what counters will this information enable us to place in the SMALLER Diagram, so as to get some
Proposition involving x and y only, leaving out m? Let us take its four compartments, one by one.

First, No. 5. All we know about THIS is that its OUTER portion is empty: but we know nothing about its
inner portion. Thus the Square MAY be empty, or it MAY have something in it. Who can tell? So we dare not
place ANY counter in this Square.

Secondly, what of No. 6? Here we are a little better off. We know that there is SOMETHING in it, for there is
a red counter in its outer portion. It is true we do not know whether its inner portion is empty or occupied: but
what does THAT matter? One solitary Cake, in one corner of the Square, is quite sufficient excuse for saying
“THIS SQUARE IS OCCUPIED”, and for marking it with a red counter.

As to No. 7, we are in the same condition as with No. 5–we find it PARTLY ‘empty’, but we do not know
whether the other part is empty or occupied: so we dare not mark this Square.

And as to No. 8, we have simply no information at all.
CHAPTER I.

The result is
——- | | 1 | |—|—| | | | ——-
Our ‘Conclusion’, then, must be got out of the rather meager piece of information that there is a red counter in

the xy’-Square. Hence our Conclusion is “some x are y’ “, i.e. “some new Cakes are not-nice (Cakes)”: or, if

you prefer to take y’ as your Subject, “some not-nice Cakes are new (Cakes)”; but the other looks neatest.
We will now write out the whole Syllogism, putting the symbol &there4[*] for “therefore”, and omitting
“Cakes”, for the sake of brevity, at the end of each Proposition.

[*][NOTE from Brett: The use of "&there4" is a rather arbitrary selection. There is no font available in
general practice which renders the "therefore" symbol correction (three dots in a triangular formation). This
can be done, however, in HTML, so if this document is read in a browser, then the symbol will be properly
recognized. This is a poor man's excuse.]

“Some new Cakes are unwholesome; No nice Cakes are unwholesome &there4 Some new Cakes are

not-nice.
“
And you have now worked out, successfully, your first ‘SYLLOGISM’. Permit me to congratulate you, and to
express the hope that it is but the beginning of a long and glorious series of similar victories!
We will work out one other Syllogism–a rather harder one than the last–and then, I think, you may be
safely left to play the Game by yourself, or (better) with any friend whom you can find, that is able and
willing to take a share in the sport.

Let us see what we can make of the two Premisses-
-
“All Dragons are uncanny; All Scotchmen are canny.
“
Remember, I don’t guarantee the Premisses to be FACTS. In the first place, I never even saw a Dragon: and,
in the second place, it isn’t of the slightest consequence to us, as LOGICIANS, whether our Premisses are true
or false: all WE have to do is to make out whether they LEAD LOGICALLY TO THE CONCLUSION, so
that, if THEY were true, IT would be true also.

You see, we must give up the “Cakes” now, or our cupboard will be of no use to us. We must take, as our
‘Universe’, some class of things which will include Dragons and Scotchmen: shall we say ‘Animals’? And, as
“canny” is evidently the Attribute belonging to the ‘Middle Terms’, we will let m stand for “canny”, x for
“Dragons”, and y for “Scotchmen”. So that our two Premisses are, in full,

“All Dragon-Animals are uncanny (Animals); All Scotchman-Animals are canny (Animals).
“
And these may be expressed, using letters for words, thus:-
-
“All x are m’; All y are m.
“
The first Premiss consists, as you already know, of two parts:-
-
“Some x are m’,” and “No x are m.
“
And the second also consists of two parts:-
-

CHAPTER I.

“Some y are m,” and “No y are m’.
“
Let us take the negative portions first.
We have, then, to mark, on the larger Diagram, first, “no x are m”, and secondly, “no y are m’”. I think you
will see, without further explanation, that the two results, separately, are
———– ———– | | | |0 | | | –|– | | –|– | | |0 | 0| | | | | | | |–|–|–|–| |–|–|–|–| | | | | | | | | |
| | –|– | | –|– | | | | |0 | | ———– ———–

and that these two, when combined, give us
———– |0 | | | –|– | | |0 | 0| | |–|–|–|–| | | | | | | –|– | |0 | | ———–
We have now to mark the two positive portions, “some x are m’” and “some y are m”.
The only two compartments, available for Things which are xm’, are No. 9 and No. 10. Of these, No. 9 is

already marked as ‘empty’; so our red counter must go into No. 10.

Similarly, the only two, available for ym, are No. 11 and No. 13. Of these, No. 11 is already marked as
‘empty’; so our red counter MUST go into No. 13.
The final result is
———– |0 | 1| | –|– | | |0 | 0| | |–|–|–|–| | |1 | | | | –|– | |0 | | ———–

And now how much of this information can usefully be transferred to the smaller Diagram?
Let us take its four compartments, one by one.
As to No. 5? This, we see, is wholly ‘empty’. (So mark it with a grey counter.
)
As to No. 6? This, we see, is ‘occupied’. (So mark it with a red counter.) As to No. 7? Ditto, ditto.
As to No. 8? No information.
The smaller Diagram is now pretty liberally marked:-
-
——- | 0 | 1 | |—|—| | 1 | | ——
-
And now what Conclusion can we read off from this? Well, it is impossible to pack such abundant
information into ONE Proposition: we shall have to indulge in TWO, this time.
First, by taking x as Subject, we get “all x are y’”, that is,
“All Dragons are not-Scotchmen”
:
secondly, by taking y as Subject, we get “all y are x’”, that is,
“All Scotchmen are not-Dragons”
.
Let us now write out, all together, our two Premisses and our brace of Conclusions.

CHAPTER I.

“All Dragons are uncanny; All Scotchmen are canny. &there4 All Dragons are not-Scotchmen; All
Scotchmen are not-Dragons.”

Let me mention, in conclusion, that you may perhaps meet with logical treatises in which it is not assumed
that any Thing EXISTS at all, by “some x are y” is understood to mean “the Attributes x, y are
COMPATIBLE, so that a Thing can have both at once”, and “no x are y” to mean “the Attributes x, y are
INCOMPATIBLE, so that nothing can have both at once”.

In such treatises, Propositions have quite different meanings from what they have in our ‘Game of Logic’, and
it will be well to understand exactly what the difference is.

First take “some x are y”. Here WE understand “are” to mean “are, as an actual FACT”–which of course
implies that some x-Things EXIST. But THEY (the writers of these other treatises) only understand “are” to
mean “CAN be”, which does not at all imply that any EXIST. So they mean LESS than we do: our meaning
includes theirs (for of course “some x ARE y” includes “some x CAN BE y”), but theirs does NOT include
ours. For example, “some Welsh hippopotami are heavy” would be TRUE, according to these writers (since
the Attributes “Welsh” and “heavy” are quite COMPATIBLE in a hippopotamus), but it would be FALSE in
our Game (since there are no Welsh hippopotami to BE heavy).

Secondly, take “no x are y”. Here WE only understand “are” to mean “are, as an actual FACT”–which does
not at all imply that no x CAN be y. But THEY understand the Proposition to mean, not only that none ARE
y, but that none CAN POSSIBLY be y. So they mean more than we do: their meaning includes ours (for of
course “no x CAN be y” includes “no x ARE y”), but ours does NOT include theirs. For example, “no
Policemen are eight feet high” would be TRUE in our Game (since, as an actual fact, no such splendid
specimens are ever found), but it would be FALSE, according to these writers (since the Attributes “belonging
to the Police Force” and “eight feet high” are quite COMPATIBLE: there is nothing to PREVENT a
Policeman from growing to that height, if sufficiently rubbed with Rowland’s Macassar Oil–which said to
make HAIR grow, when rubbed on hair, and so of course will make a POLICEMAN grow, when rubbed on a
Policeman).

Thirdly, take “all x are y”, which consists of the two partial Propositions “some x are y” and “no x are y’”.
Here, of course, the treatises mean LESS than we do in the FIRST part, and more than we do in the SECOND.
But the two operations don’t balance each other–any more than you can console a man, for having knocked
down one of his chimneys, by giving him an extra door-step.

If you meet with Syllogisms of this kind, you may work them, quite easily, by the system I have given you:
you have only to make ‘are’ mean ‘are CAPABLE of being’, and all will go smoothly. For “some x are y” will
become “some x are capable of being y”, that is, “the Attributes x, y are COMPATIBLE”. And “no x are y”
will become “no x are capable of being y”, that is, “the Attributes x, y are INCOMPATIBLE”. And, of course,
“all x are y” will become “some x are capable of being y, and none are capable of being y’”, that is, “the
Attributes x, y are COMPATIBLE, and the Attributes x, y’ are INCOMPATIBLE.” In using the Diagrams for
this system, you must understand a red counter to mean “there may POSSIBLY be something in this
compartment,” and a grey one to mean “there cannot POSSIBLY be anything in this compartment.”

3. Fallacies.
And so you think, do you, that the chief use of Logic, in real life, is to deduce Conclusions from workable
Premisses, and to satisfy yourself that the Conclusions, deduced by other people, are correct? I only wish it
were! Society would be much less liable to panics and other delusions, and POLITICAL life, especially,
would be a totally different thing, if even a majority of the arguments, that scattered broadcast over the world,
were correct! But it is all the other way, I fear. For ONE workable Pair of Premisses (I mean a Pair that lead to
a logical Conclusion) that you meet with in reading your newspaper or magazine, you will probably find FIVE
CHAPTER I.

that lead to no Conclusion at all: and, even when the Premisses ARE workable, for ONE instance, where the
writer draws a correct Conclusion, there are probably TEN where he draws an incorrect one.

In the first case, you may say “the PREMISSES are fallacious”: in the second, “the CONCLUSION is
fallacious.”

The chief use you will find, in such Logical skill as this Game may teach you, will be in detecting
‘FALLACIES’ of these two kinds.

The first kind of Fallacy–’Fallacious Premisses’–you will detect when, after marking them on the larger
Diagram, you try to transfer the marks to the smaller. You will take its four compartments, one by one, and
ask, for each in turn, “What mark can I place HERE?”; and in EVERY one the answer will be “No
information!”, showing that there is NO CONCLUSION AT ALL. For instance,

“All soldiers are brave; Some Englishmen are brave. &there4 Some Englishmen are soldiers.”

looks uncommonly LIKE a Syllogism, and might easily take in a less experienced Logician. But YOU are not
to be caught by such a trick! You would simply set out the Premisses, and would then calmly remark
“Fallacious PREMISSES!”: you wouldn’t condescend to ask what CONCLUSION the writer professed to
draw–knowing that, WHATEVER it is, it MUST be wrong. You would be just as safe as that wise mother
was, who said “Mary, just go up to the nursery, and see what Baby’s doing, AND TELL HIM NOT TO DO
IT!”

The other kind of Fallacy–’Fallacious Conclusion’–you will not detect till you have marked BOTH
Diagrams, and have read off the correct Conclusion, and have compared it with the Conclusion which the
writer has drawn.

But mind, you mustn’t say “FALLACIOUS Conclusion,” simply because it is not IDENTICAL with the
correct one: it may be a PART of the correct Conclusion, and so be quite correct, AS FAR AS IT GOES. In
this case you would merely remark, with a pitying smile, “DEFECTIVE Conclusion!” Suppose, of example,
you were to meet with this Syllogism:–

“All unselfish people are generous; No misers are generous. &there4 No misers are unselfish.”

the Premisses of which might be thus expressed in letters:–

“All x’ are m; No y are m.”

Here the correct Conclusion would be “All x’ are y’” (that is, “All unselfish people are not misers”), while the
Conclusion, drawn by the writer, is “No y are x’,” (which is the same as “No x’ are y,” and so is PART of “All
x’ are y’.”) Here you would simply say “DEFECTIVE Conclusion!” The same thing would happen, if you
were in a confectioner’s shop, and if a little boy were to come in, put down twopence, and march off
triumphantly with a single penny-bun. You would shake your head mournfully, and would remark “Defective
Conclusion! Poor little chap!” And perhaps you would ask the young lady behind the counter whether she
would let YOU eat the bun, which the little boy had paid for and left behind him: and perhaps SHE would
reply “Sha’n't!”

But if, in the above example, the writer had drawn the Conclusion “All misers are selfish” (that is, “All y are
x”), this would be going BEYOND his legitimate rights (since it would assert the EXISTENCE of y, which is
not contained in the Premisses), and you would very properly say “Fallacious Conclusion!”

Now, when you read other treatises on Logic, you will meet with various kinds of (so-called) ‘Fallacies’

The Game of Logic-Introduction November 20, 2007

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The Game of Logic

The Game of Logic

The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Game of Logic, by Lewis Carroll (#6 in our series by Lewis Carroll)

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Title: The Game of Logic
Author: Lewis Carroll
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE GAME OF LOGIC ***

Scanned by Gregory D. Weeks Transcribed by L. Lynn Smith Proofed by Reina Hosier and Brett Fishburne

THE GAME OF LOGIC

By Lewis Carroll

——————— |9 | 10| | | | | —–x—— | | |11 | 12| | | | | | | |—y—–m——y’—| | | |
| | | |13 | 14| | | —–x’—– | | | | |15 | 16| ———————

COLOURS FOR ————- COUNTERS |5 | 6| ___ | x | | | | See the Sun is overhead,
|–y——-y’-| Shining on us, FULL and | | | RED! | x’ | |7 | 8| Now the Sun is gone away,
————- And the EMPTY sky is GREY! ___

THE GAME OF LOGIC

CHAPTER PAGE

By Lewis Carrol
To my Child-friend.
I charm in vain; for never again, All keenly as my glance I bend, Will Memory, goddess coy, Embody for my

joy Departed days, nor let me gaze On thee, my fairy friend!

Yet could thy face, in mystic grace, A moment smile on me, ‘twould send Far-darting rays of light From
Heaven athwart the night, By which to read in very deed Thy spirit, sweetest friend!
So may the stream of Life’s long dream Flow gently onward to its end, With many a floweret gay, Adown its

willowy way: May no sigh vex, no care perplex, My loving little friend!

NOTA BENE.

With each copy of this Book is given an Envelope, containing a Diagram (similar to the frontispiece) on card,
and nine Counters, four red and five grey.

The Envelope, &c. can be had separately, at 3d. each.

The Author will be very grateful for suggestions, especially from beginners in Logic, of any alterations, or
further explanations, that may seem desirable. Letters should be addressed to him at “29, Bedford Street,
Covent Garden, London.”

PREFACE
“There foam’d rebellious Logic, gagg’d and bound.”

This Game requires nine Counters–four of one colour and five of another: say four red and five grey.

Besides the nine Counters, it also requires one Player, AT LEAST. I am not aware of any Game that can be
played with LESS than this number: while there are several that require MORE: take Cricket, for instance,
which requires twenty-two. How much easier it is, when you want to play a Game, to find ONE Player than
twenty-two. At the same time, though one Player is enough, a good deal more amusement may be got by two
working at it together, and correcting each other’s mistakes.

A second advantage, possessed by this Game, is that, besides being an endless source of amusement (the
number of arguments, that may be worked by it, being infinite), it will give the Players a little instruction as
well. But is there any great harm in THAT, so long as you get plenty of amusement?

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER PAGE

I. NEW LAMPS FOR OLD. 1. Propositions . . . . . . . 1 2. Syllogisms . . . . . . . . 20 3. Fallacies . . . . . . . . 32
II. CROSS QUESTIONS. 1. Elementary . . . . . . . . 37 2. Half of Smaller Diagram. Propositions to be
represented . . . . . 40 3. Do. Symbols to be interpreted. . 42 4. Smaller Diagram. Propositions to be
represented . . . . . . . 44 5. Do. Symbols to be interpreted. . 46 6. Larger Diagram. Propositions to be
represented . . . . . . . 48 7. Both Diagrams to be employed . . 51

The Game of Logic CHAPTER-IV November 20, 2007

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CHAPTER IV.
HIT OR MISS.
“Thou canst not hit it, hit it, hit it, Thou

canst not hit it, my good man.”

1.
 Pain is wearisome; No pain is eagerly wished for.

2.
 No bald person needs a hair-brush; No lizards have

hair.

3.
 All thoughtless people do mischief; No thoughtful

person forgets a promise.

4.
 I do not like John; Some of my friends like John.

5.
 No potatoes are pine-apples; All pine-apples are nice.

6.
 No pins are ambitious; No needles are pins.

7.
 All my friends have colds; No one can sing who has a

cold.

8.
 All these dishes are well-cooked; Some dishes are

unwholesome if not well-cooked.

9.
 No medicine is nice; Senna is a medicine.

10.
 Some oysters are silent; No silent creatures are

amusing.

11.
 All wise men walk on their feet; All unwise men walk on

their hands.

12.
 ”Mind your own business; This quarrel is no business of

yours.”

13.
 No bridges are made of sugar; Some bridges are

picturesque.

14.
 No riddles interest me that can be solved; All these

riddles are insoluble.

15.
 John is industrious; All industrious people are happy.

16.
 No frogs write books; Some people use ink in writing

books.

17.
 No pokers are soft; All pillows are soft.

18.
 No antelope is ungraceful; Graceful animals delight the

eye.

19.
 Some uncles are ungenerous; All merchants are generous.

20.
 No unhappy people chuckle; No happy people groan.

21.
 Audible music causes vibration in the air; Inaudible

music is not worth paying for.

22.
 He gave me five pounds; I was delighted.

23.
 No old Jews are fat millers; All my friends are old

millers.

24.
 Flour is good for food; Oatmeal is a kind of flour.

25.
 Some dreams are terrible; No lambs are terrible.

26.
 No rich man begs in the street; All who are not rich

should keep accounts.

27.
 No thieves are honest; Some dishonest people are found

out.

28.
 All wasps are unfriendly; All puppies are friendly.

29.
 All improbable stories are doubted; None of these

stories are probable.

30.
 ”He told me you had gone away.” “He never says one word

of truth.”

31.
 His songs never last an hour; A song, that lasts an

hour, is tedious.

32.
 No bride-cakes are wholesome; Unwholesome food should

be avoided.

33.
 No old misers are cheerful; Some old misers are thin.

34.
 All ducks waddle; Nothing that waddles is graceful.

35.
 No Professors are ignorant; Some ignorant people are

conceited.

36.
 Toothache is never pleasant; Warmth is never

unpleasant.

37.
 Bores are terrible; You are a bore.

38.
 Some mountains are insurmountable; All stiles can be

surmounted.

39.
 No Frenchmen like plumpudding; All Englishmen like

plumpudding.

40.
 No idlers win fame; Some painters are not idle.

41.
 No lobsters are unreasonable; No reasonable creatures

expect impossibilities.

42.
 No kind deed is unlawful; What is lawful may be done

without fear.

43.
 No fossils can be crossed in love; Any oyster may be

crossed in love.

44.
 ”This is beyond endurance!” “Well, nothing beyond

endurance has ever happened to me.”

45.
 All uneducated men are shallow; All these students are

educated.

46.
 All my cousins are unjust; No judges are unjust.

47.
 No country, that has been explored, is infested by

dragons; Unexplored countries are fascinating.

48.
 No misers are generous; Some old men are not generous.

49.
 A prudent man shuns hyaenas; No banker is imprudent.

50.
 Some poetry is original; No original work is producible

at will.

51.
 No misers are unselfish; None but misers save egg-

shells.

52.
 All pale people are phlegmatic; No one, who is not

pale, looks poetical.

53.
 All spiders spin webs; Some creatures, that do not spin

webs, are savage.

54.
 None of my cousins are just; All judges are just.

55.
 John is industrious; No industrious people are unhappy.

56.
 Umbrellas are useful on a journey; What is useless on a

journey should be left behind.

57.
 Some pillows are soft; No pokers are soft.

58.
 I am old and lame; No old merchant is a lame gambler.

59.
 No eventful journey is ever forgotten; Uneventful

journeys are not worth writing a book about.

60.
 Sugar is sweet; Some sweet things are liked by

children.

61.
 Richard is out of temper; No one but Richard can ride

that horse.

62.
 All jokes are meant to amuse; No Act of Parliament is a

joke.

63.
 ”I saw it in a newspaper.” “All newspapers tell lies.”

64.
 No nightmare is pleasant; Unpleasant experiences are

not anxiously desired.

65.
 Prudent travellers carry plenty of small change;

Imprudent travellers lose their luggage.

66.
 All wasps are unfriendly; No puppies are unfriendly.

67.
 He called here yesterday; He is no friend of mine.

68.
 No quadrupeds can whistle; Some cats are quadrupeds.

69.
 No cooked meat is sold by butchers; No uncooked meat is

served at dinner.

70.
 Gold is heavy; Nothing but gold will silence him.

71.
 Some pigs are wild; There are no pigs that are not fat.

72.
 No emperors are dentists; All dentists are dreaded by

children.

73.
 All, who are not old, like walking; Neither you nor I

are old.

74.
 All blades are sharp; Some grasses are blades.

75.
 No dictatorial person is popular; She is dictatorial.

76.
 Some sweet things are unwholesome; No muffins are

sweet.

77.
 No military men write poetry; No generals are

civilians.

78.
 Bores are dreaded; A bore is never begged to prolong

his visit.

79.
 All owls are satisfactory; Some excuses are

unsatisfactory.

80.
 All my cousins are unjust; All judges are just.

81.
 Some buns are rich; All buns are nice.

82.
 No medicine is nice; No pills are unmedicinal.

83.
 Some lessons are difficult; What is difficult needs

attention.

84.
 No unexpected pleasure annoys me; Your visit is an

unexpected pleasure.

85.
 Caterpillars are not eloquent; Jones is eloquent.

86.
 Some bald people wear wigs; All your children have

hair.

87.
 All wasps are unfriendly; Unfriendly creatures are

always unwelcome.

88.
 No bankrupts are rich; Some merchants are not

bankrupts.

89.
 Weasels sometimes sleep; All animals sometimes sleep.

90.
 Ill-managed concerns are unprofitable; Railways are

never ill-managed.

91.
 Everybody has seen a pig; Nobody admires a pig.

Extract a Pair of Premisses out of each of the

following: and deduce the Conclusion, if there is one:–

92.
 ”The Lion, as any one can tell you who has been chased

by them as often as I have, is a very savage animal: and

there are certain individuals among them, though I will

not guarantee it as a general law, who do not drink

coffee.”

93.
 ”It was most absurd of you to offer it! You might have

known, if you had had any sense, that no old
sailors ever

like gruel!”
“But I thought, as he was an uncle of yours

–”

“An uncle of mine, indeed! Stuff!”
“You may call it

stuff, if you like. All I know is, MY uncles are all old

men: and they like gruel like
anything!”

“Well, then YOUR uncles are–”
94. “Do come away! I can’t stand this squeezing any

more. No crowded shops are comfortable, you know very

well.”
“Well, who expects to be comfortable, out shopping?”
“Why, I do, of course! And I’m sure there are some

shops, further down the street, that are not crowded.

So–”
95. “They say no doctors are metaphysical organists: and

that lets me into a little fact about YOU, you know.”
“Why, how do you make THAT out? You never heard me play

the organ.”
“No, doctor, but I’ve heard you talk about

Browning’s poetry: and that showed me that you’re

METAPHYSICAL, at any rate. So–”

Extract a Syllogism out of each of the following: and

test its correctness:–
96.
 ”Don’t talk to me! I’ve known more rich merchants than

you have: and I can tell you not ONE of them was
ever an

old miser since the world began!”
“And what has that got

to do with old Mr. Brown?”
“Why, isn’t he very rich?”
“Yes, of course he is. And what then?”
“Why, don’t you

see that it’s absurd to call him a miserly merchant?

Either he’s not a merchant, or he’s not a
miser!”
97.
 ”It IS so kind of you to enquire! I’m really feeling a

great deal better to-day.”
“And is it Nature, or Art,

that is to have the credit of this happy change?”
“Art, I

think. The Doctor has given me some of that patent

medicine of his.”
“Well, I’ll never call him a humbug

again. There’s SOMEBODY, at any rate, that feels better

after taking his
medicine!”
98.
 ”No, I don’t like you one bit. And I’ll go and play

with my doll. DOLLS are never unkind.”
“So you like a

doll better than a cousin? Oh you little silly!”
“Of

course I do! COUSINS are never kind–at least no cousins

I’ve ever seen.”
“Well, and what does THAT prove, I’d

like to know! If you mean that cousins aren’t dolls, who

ever said they
were?”
99.
 ”What are you talking about geraniums for? You can’t

tell one flower from another, at this distance! I

grant you they’re all RED flowers: it doesn’t need a

telescope to know THAT.”
“Well, some geraniums are red, aren’t they?”
“I don’t deny it. And what then? I suppose you’ll be

telling me some of those flowers are geraniums!”
“Of course that’s what I should tell you, if you’d the

sense to follow an argument! But what’s the good of

proving anything to YOU, I should like to know?”
100. “Boys, you’ve passed a fairly good examination, all

things considered. Now let me give you a word of advice

before I go. Remember that all, who are really anxious

to learn, work HARD.”
“I thank you, Sir, in the name of my scholars! And proud

am I to think there are SOME of them, at least, that are

really ANXIOUS to learn.”
“Very glad to hear it: and how do you make it out to be

so?”
“Why, Sir, I know how hard they work–some of them, that

is. Who should know better?”
Extract from the following speech a series of

Syllogisms, or arguments having the form of Syllogisms:

and test their correctness.
It is supposed to be spoken by a fond mother, in answer

to a friend’s cautious suggestion that she is perhaps a

LITTLE overdoing it, in the way of lessons, with her

children.
101. “Well, they’ve got their own way to make in the

world. WE can’t leave them a fortune apiece. And money’s

not to be had, as YOU know, without money’s worth: they

must WORK if they want to live. And how are they to

work, if they don’t know anything? Take my word for it,

there’s no place for ignorance in THESE times! And all

authorities agree that the time to learn is when you’re

young. One’s got no memory afterwards, worth speaking

of. A child will learn more in an hour than a grown man

in five. So those, that have to learn, must learn when

they’re young, if ever they’re to learn at all. Of

course that doesn’t do unless children are HEALTHY: I

quite allow THAT. Well, the doctor tells me no children

are healthy unless they’ve got a good colour in their

cheeks. And only just look at my darlings! Why, their

cheeks bloom like peonies! Well, now, they tell me that,

to keep children in health, you should never give them

more than six hours altogether at lessons in the day,

and at least two half-holidays in the week. And that’s

EXACTLY our plan I can assure you! We never go beyond

six hours, and every Wednesday and Saturday, as ever is,

not one syllable of lessons do they do after their one

o’clock dinner! So how you can imagine I’m running any

risk in the education of my precious pets is more than I

can understand, I promise you!”
THE END.
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The Game of Logic CHAPTER-III November 20, 2007

Posted by sma123 in Philosophy.
1 comment so far

CHAPTER III.
CROOKED ANSWERS.
“I answered him, as I thought good, ‘As

many as red-herrings grow in the wood’.”

1. Elementary.
1.
 Whatever can be “attributed to”, that is “said to

belong to”, a Thing, is called an ‘Attribute’. For

example, “baked”, which can (frequently) be attributed

to “Buns”, and “beautiful”, which can (seldom) be

attributed to “Babies”.

2.
 When they are the Names of two Things (for example,

“these Pigs are fat Animals”), or of two Attributes (for

example, “pink is light red”).

3.
 When one is the Name of a Thing, and the other the Name

of an Attribute (for example, “these Pigs are pink”),

since a Thing cannot actually BE an Attribute.

4.
 That the Substantive shall be supposed to be repeated

at the end of the sentence (for example, “these Pigs are

pink (Pigs)”).

5.
 A ‘Proposition’ is a sentence stating that some, or

none, or all, of the Things belonging to a certain

class, called the ‘Subject’, are also Things belonging

to a certain other class, called the ‘Predicate’. For

example, “some new Cakes are not nice”, that is (written

in full) “some new Cakes are not nice Cakes”; where the

class “new Cakes” is the Subject, and the class “not-

nice Cakes” is the Predicate.

6.
 A Proposition, stating that SOME of the Things

belonging to its Subject are so-and-so, is called

‘Particular’. For example, “some new Cakes are nice”,

“some new Cakes are not nice.”

A Proposition, stating that NONE of the Things belonging

to its Subject, or that ALL of them, are so-and-so, is

called ‘Universal’. For example, “no new Cakes are

nice”, “all new Cakes are not nice”.

7.
 The Things in each compartment possess TWO Attributes,

whose symbols will be found written on two of the EDGES

of that compartment.

8.
 ”One or more.”

9.
 As a name of the class of Things to which the whole

Diagram is assigned.

10.
 A Proposition containing two statements. For example,

“some new Cakes are nice and some are not-nice.”

11.
 When the whole class, thus divided, is “exhausted”

among the sets into which it is divided, there being no

member of it which does not belong to some one of them.

For example, the class “new Cakes” is “exhaustively”

divided into “nice” and “not-nice” since EVERY new Cake

must be one or the other.

12.
 When a man cannot make up his mind which of two parties

he will join, he is said to be “sitting on the fence”–

not being able to decide on which side he will jump

down.

13.
 ”Some x are y” and “no x are y’”.

14.
 A Proposition, whose Subject is a single Thing, is

called ‘Individual’. For example, “I am happy”, “John is

not at home”. These are Universal Propositions, being

the same as “all the I’s that exist are happy”, “ALL the

Johns, that I am now considering, are not at home”.

15.
 Propositions beginning with “some” or “all”.

16.
 When they begin with “some” or “no”. For example, “some

abc are def” may be re-arranged as “some bf are acde”,

each being equivalent to “some abcdef exist”.

17.
 Some tigers are fierce, No tigers are not-fierce.

18.
 Some hard-boiled eggs are unwholesome, No hard-boiled

eggs are wholesome.

19.
 Some I’s are happy, No I’s are unhappy.

20.
 Some Johns are not at home, No Johns are at home.

21.
 The Things, in each compartment of the larger Diagram,

possess THREE Attributes, whose symbols will be found

written at three of the CORNERS of the compartment

(except in the case of m’, which is not actually

inserted in the Diagram, but is SUPPOSED to stand at

each of its four outer corners).

22.
 If the Universe of Things be divided with regard to

three different Attributes; and if two Propositions be

given, containing two different couples of these

Attributes; and if from these we can prove a third

Proposition, containing the two Attributes that have not

yet occurred together; the given Propositions are called

‘the Premisses’, the third one ‘the Conclusion’, and the

whole set ‘a Syllogism’. For example, the Premisses

might be “no m are x’” and “all m’ are y”; and it might

be possible to prove from them a Conclusion containing x

and
y.
23.
 If an Attribute occurs in both Premisses, the Term

containing it is called ‘the Middle Term’. For example,

if the Premisses are “some m are x” and “no m are y’”,

the class of “m-Things” is ‘the Middle Term.’

If an Attribute occurs in one Premiss, and its

contradictory in the other, the Terms containing them

may be called ‘the Middle Terms’. For example, if the

Premisses are “no m are x’” and “all m’ are y”, the two

classes of “m-Things” and “m’-Things” may be called ‘the

Middle Terms’.

24.
 Because they can be marked with CERTAINTY: whereas

AFFIRMATIVE Propositions (that is, those that begin with

“some” or “all”) sometimes require us to place a red

counter ‘sitting on a fence’.

25.
 Because the only question we are concerned with is

whether the Conclusion FOLLOWS LOGICALLY from the

Premisses, so that, if THEY were true, IT also would be

true.

26.
 By understanding a red counter to mean “this

compartment CAN be occupied”, and a grey one to mean

“this compartment CANNOT be occupied” or “this

compartment MUST be empty”.

27.
 ’Fallacious Premisses’ and ‘Fallacious Conclusion’.

28.
 By finding, when we try to transfer marks from the

larger Diagram to the smaller, that there is ‘no

information’ for any of its four compartments.

29.
 By finding the correct Conclusion, and then observing

that the Conclusion, offered to us, is neither identical

with it nor a part of it.

30.
 When the offered Conclusion is PART of the correct

Conclusion. In this case, we may call it a ‘Defective

Conclusion’.
2. Half of Smaller Diagram.
Propositions represented.
——- ——- | | | | | | 1. | | 1 | 2. | 0 | 1 | | |

| | | | ——- ——- ——- ——- | | | | | | 3. |

1 | 1 | 4. | 0 | 0 | | | | | | | ——- ——- ——-

——- | | | | | | 5. | 1 | 6. | | 0 | | | | | | | —

—- ——- ——- | | | 7. | 1 | 1 | It might be

thought that the proper | | | ——- ——- | | |

Diagram would be | 1 1
|, in order to express “some | | | ——- x exist”: but

this is really contained in “some x are y’.” To put a

red
counter on the division-line would only tell us “ONE OF

THE compartments is occupied”, which we know
already, in knowing that ONE is occupied. ——- | | |

8. No x are y. i.e. | 0 | | | | | ——-
——- | | | 9. Some x are y’. i.e. | | 1 | | | | —-

—
——- | | | 10. All x are y. i.e. | 1 | 0 | | | | —

—-
——- | | | 11. Some x are y. i.e. | 1 | | | | | —-

—
——- | | | 12. No x are y. i.e. | 0 | | | | | ——-
——- | | | 13. Some x are y, and some are y’. i.e. |

1 | 1 | | | | ——-
——- | | | 14. All x are y’. i.e. | 0 | 1 | | | | –

—– — | | 15. No y are x’. i.e. |—| | 0 | —
— | 1 | 16. All y are x. i.e. |—| | 0 | —
— | 0 | 17. No y exist. i.e. |—| | 0 | —
— | | 18. Some y are x’. i.e. |—| | 1 | —
— | | 15. Some y exist. i.e. |-1-| | | —
3. Half of Smaller Diagram.
Symbols interpreted.
1.
 No x are y’.

2.
 No x exist.

3.
 Some x exist.

4.
 All x are y’.

5.
 Some x are y. i.e. Some good riddles are hard.

6.
 All x are y. i.e. All good riddles are hard.

7.
 No x exist. i.e. No riddles are good.

8.
 No x are y. i.e. No good riddles are hard.

9.
 Some x are y’. i.e. Some lobsters are unselfish.

10.
 No x are y. i.e. No lobsters are selfish.

11.
 All x are y’. i.e. All lobsters are unselfish.

12.
 Some x are y, and some are y’. i.e. Some lobsters are

selfish, and some are unselfish.

13.
 All y’ are x’. i.e. All invalids are unhappy.

14.
 Some y’ exist. i.e. Some people are unhealthy.

15.
 Some y’ are x, and some are x’. i.e. Some invalids are

happy, and some are unhappy.

16.
 No y’ exist. i.e. Nobody is unhealthy.
4. Smaller Diagram.
Propositions represented.
——- ——- | 1 | | | | | 1. |—|—| 2. |—|—|

| 0 | | | 1 | | ——- ——- ——- ——- | | | |

| 1 | 3. |—|—| 4. |—|—| | | 0 | | | | ——- -

—— ——- ——- | | 1 | | | | 5. |—|—| 6. |-

–|—| | | | | 0 | | ——- ——- ——- ——- |

| | | | | 7. |—|—| 8. |—|—| | | 1 | | 0 | 1 | -

—— ——- ——- ——- | | | | | | 9. |—|-1-|

10. |—|—| | | | | 0 | 0 | ——- ——- ——- -

—— | 1
| | | 1 | 0 | 11. |—|—| 12. |—|—| | 1 | | | | 1

| ——- ——- ——- | | | 13. No x’ are y. i.e. |

—|—| | 0 | | ——- ——- | | 0 | 14. All y’ are

x’. i.e. |—|—| | | 1 | ——- ——- | | | 15.

Some y’ exist. i.e. |—|-1-| | | | ——- ——- | 1

| 0 | 16. All y are x, and all x are y. i.e. |—|—| |

0 | | ——- ——- | | | 17. No x’ exist.
i.e. |—|—| | 0 | 0 | ——- ——- | 0 | 1 | 18.

All x are y’. i.e. |—|—| | | | ——- ——- | 0 |

| 19. No x are y. i.e. |—|—| | | | ——- ——- |

| | 20. Some x’ are y, and some are y’. i.e. |—|—| |

1 | 1 | ——- ——- | 0 | 1 | 21. No y exist, and

some x exist. i.e. |—|—| | 0 | | ——- ——- | |

1 | 22. All x’ are y, and all y’ are x. i.e. |—|—| |

1 | 0 | ——- ——- | 1 | | 17. Some x are y, and

some x’ are y’. i.e. |—|—| | | 1 | ——-
5. Smaller Diagram.
Symbols interpreted.
1.
 Some y are not-x, or, Some not-x are y.

2.
 No not-x are not-y, or, No not-y are not-x.

3.
 No not-y are x.

4.
 No not-x exist. i.e. No Things are not-x.

5.
 No y exist. i.e. No houses are two-storied.

6.
 Some x’ exist. i.e. Some houses are not built of brick.

7.
 No x are y’. Or, no y’ are x. i.e. No houses, built of

brick, are other than two-storied. Or, no houses, that

are not two-storied, are built of brick.

8.
 All x’ are y’. i.e. All houses, that are not built of

brick, are not two-storied.

9.
 Some x are y, and some are y’. i.e. Some fat boys are

active, and some are not.

10.
 All y’ are x’. i.e. All lazy boys are thin.

11.
 All x are y’, and all y’ are x. i.e. All fat boys are

lazy, and all lazy ones are fat.

12.
 All y are x, and all x’ are y. i.e. All active boys are

fat, and all thin ones are lazy.

13.
 No x exist, and no y’ exist. i.e. No cats have green

eyes, and none have bad tempers.

14.
 Some x are y’, and some x’ are y. Or some y are x’, and

some y’ are x. i.e. Some green-eyed cats are bad-

tempered, and some, that have not green eyes, are good-

tempered. Or, some good-tempered cats have not green

eyes, and some bad-tempered ones have green eyes.

15.
 Some x are y, and no x’ are y’. Or, some y are x, and

no y’ are x’. i.e. Some green-eyed cats are good-

tempered, and none, that are not green-eyed, are bad-

tempered. Or, some good-tempered cats have green eyes,

and none, that are bad-tempered, have not green eyes.

16.
 All x are y’, and all x’ are y. Or, all y are x’, and

all y’ are x. i.e. All green-eyed cats are bad-tempered

and all, that have not green eyes, are good-tempered.

Or, all good-tempered ones have eyes that are not green,

and all bad-tempered ones have green eyes.
6. Larger Diagram.
Propositions represented.
————— ————— | | | | | | | —|— |

| —|— | | | 0 | 0 | | | | | | | 1. |—|—|—|—|

2. |-1-|—|—|—| | | | | | | | | | | | —|— | |

—|— | | | | | | | ————— —————
————— ————— | | | | | 0 | | —|—

| | —|— | | | 0 | 0 | | | | | | | 3. |—|—|—|-

–| 4. |—|—|—|—| | | – | | | | | | | | —|— |

| —|— | | | | | | 0 | ————— ————-

–
————— ————— | 0 | | | | | | —|—

| | —|— | | | 0 | 0 | | | | 0 | 1 | | 5. |—|—|-

–|—| 6. |—|—|—|—| | | 1 | | | | | 0 | | | |

—|— | | —|— | | 0 | | | | | ————— —

————
————— ————— | | | | | 0 | | —|—

| | —|— | | | 0 | 0 | | | | | | | 7. |—|—|—|-

–| 8. |—|—|—|—| | | 0 | 1 | | | | 0 | 0 | | |

—|— | | —|— | | | | | | 0 | ————— —

————
————— | | | | —|— | | | 0 | 0 | | 9. No x

are m. i.e. |—|—|—|—| | | 0 | | | | —|— | |

| | —————
————— | | | | —|— | | | | | | 10. Some m’

are y. i.e. |-1-|—|—|—| | | | | | | —|— | | |

| —————
————— | | | | —|— | | | | 0 | | 11. All y’

are m’. i.e. |—|—|—|-1-| | | | 0 | | | —|— | |

| | —————
————— | | | | —|— | | | 0 | 0 | | 12. All

m are x’. i.e. |—|—|—|—| | | 1 | | | —|— | |

| | —————
————— | 0 | | | —|— | | | 0 | 0 | | 13. No

x are m; i.e. |—|—|—|—| All y are m. | | 1 | | |

| —|— | | 0 | | —————
————— | 0 | 0 | | —|— | | | | | | 14. All

m’ are y; i.e. |—|—|—|—| No x are m’. | | | | |

| —|— | | 1 | 0 | ————— ————— |

0 | 0 | | —|— | | | 1 | 0 | | 15. All x are m; i.e.

|—|—|—|—| No m are y’. | | | 0 | | | —|— | |

| | —————
————— | 0 | 0 | | —|— | | | | | | 16. All

m’ are y’; i.e. |—|—|—|—| No x are m’. | | | | |

| —|— | | 0 | 1 | —————
————— | 0 | 0 | | —|— | | | 1 | 0 | | 17.

All x are m; i.e. |—|—|—|—| All m are y. | | | 0

| | | —|— | [See remarks on No. 7, p. 60.] | | | –

————-
————— | 0 | | | —|— | | | | | | 18. No x’

are m; i.e. |—|—|—|—| No m’ are y. | | 0 | 0 | |

| —|— | | 0 | | —————
————— | | | | —|— | | | 1 | 0 | | 19. All

m are x; i.e. |—|—|—|—| All m are y. | | 0 | 0 |

| | —|— | | | | —————
20. We had better take “persons” as Universe. We may

choose “myself” as ‘Middle Term’, in which case the

Premisses will take the form
I am a-person-who-sent-him-to-bring-a-kitten; I am a-

person-to-whom-he-brought-a-kettle-by-mistake.
Or we may choose “he” as ‘Middle Term’, in which case

the Premisses will take the form
He is a-person-whom-I-sent-to-bring-me-a-kitten; He is

a-person-who-brought-me-a-kettle-by-mistake.
The latter form seems best, as the interest of the

anecdote clearly depends on HIS stupidity–not on what

happened to ME. Let us then make m = “he”; x = “persons

whom I sent, &c.”; and y = “persons who brought, &c.”
Hence, All m are x; All m are y. and the required

Diagram is
————— | | | | —|— | | | 1 | 0 | | |—|–

-|—|—| | | 0 | 0 | | | —|— | | | | ————

—
7. Both Diagrams employed. ——- | 0 | | 1. |—|—|

i.e. All y are x’. | 1 | | ——- ——- | | 1 | 2. |

—|—| i.e. Some x are y’; or, Some y’ are x. | | | -

—— ——- | | | 3. |—|—| i.e. Some y are x’;

or, Some x’ are y. | 1 | | ——- ——- | | | 4. |–

-|—| i.e. No x’ are y’; or, No y’ are x’. | | 0 | —

—- ——- | 0 | | 5. |—|—| i.e. All y are x’.

i.e. All black rabbits | 1 | | are young. ——- —–

– | | | 6. |—|—| i.e. Some y are x’. i.e. Some

black | 1 | | rabbits are young. ——- ——- | 1 | 0

| 7. |—|—| i.e. All x are y. i.e. All well-fed birds

| | | are happy. ——- ——- | | | i.e. Some x’ are

y’. i.e. Some birds, 8. |—|—| that are not well-fed,

are unhappy; | | 1 | or,
Some unhappy birds are not ——- well-fed.
——- | 1

| 0 | 9. |—|—| i.e. All x are y. i.e. John has got a

| | | tooth-ache. ——-
——- | | | 10. |—|—|

i.e. No x’ are y. i.e. No one, but John, | 0 | | has got

a tooth-ache. ——-
——- | 1 | | 11. |—|—| i.e.

Some x are y. i.e. Some one, who | | | has taken a walk,

feels better.

——-

——- | 1 | | i.e. Some x are y. i.e. Some one, 12. |

—|—| whom I sent to bring me a kitten, | | | brought

me a kettle by mistake. ——- ————— | | 0 |

| —|— | | | 0 | 0 | | 13. |-1-|—|—|—| ——-

| | | | | | | 0 | | —|— |
|—|—| | | 0 | | | | ————— ——-
Let

“books” be Universe; m=”exciting”, x=”that suit feverish

patients”; y=”that make one drowsy”.
No m are x; &there4

No y’ are x. All m’ are y.

i.e.
 No books suit feverish patients, except such as make

one drowsy.
————— | | | | —|— | | | 1 | 0 | | 14. |–

-|—|—|—| ——- | | | 0 | | | 1 | | | —|— |
|

—|—| | | | | | | ————— ——-
Let

“persons” be Universe; m=”that deserve the fair”;

x=”that get their deserts”; y=”brave”.
Some m are x;

&there4 Some y are x. No y’ are m.
i.e.
 Some brave persons get their deserts.
————— | 0 | | | —|— | | | 0 | 0 | | 15. |

—|—|—|—| ——- | | | | | | 0 | | | —|— |
|

—|—| | 0 | | | | | ————— ——-
Let

“persons” be Universe; m=”patient”; x=”children”;

y=”that can sit still”.
No x are m; &there4 No x are y.

No m’ are y.
i.e.
 No children can sit still.
————— | 0 | 0 | | —|— | | | 0 | 1 | | 16.

|—|—|—|—| ——- | | 0 | | | | 0 | 1 | | —|-

– |
|—|—| | | | | | | ————— ——-
Let

“things” be Universe; m=”fat”; x=”pigs”; y=”skeletons”.
All x are m; &there4 All x are y’. No y are m.
i.e.
 All pigs are not-skeletons.

————— | | | | —|— | | | 0 | 0 | | 17. |–

-|—|—|—| ——- | | 1 | 0 | | | | | | —|— |
|

—|—| | | | | 1 | | ————— ——-
Let

“creatures” be Universe; m=”monkeys”; x=”soldiers”;

y=”mischievous”.

No m are x; &there4 Some y are x’. All m are y.
i.e.
 Some mischievous creatures are not soldiers.

————— | 0 | | | —|— | | | 0 | 0 | | 18. |

—|—|—|—| ——- | | | | | | 0 | | | —|— |
|

—|—| | 0 | | | | | ————— ——-
Let

“persons” be Universe; m=”just”; x=”my cousins”;

y=”judges”.
No x are m; &there4 No x are y. No y are m’.
i.e.
 None of my cousins are judges.
————— | | | | —|— | | | 1 | 0 | | 19. |–

-|—|—|—| ——- | | | | | | 1 | | | —|— |
|–

-|—| | | | | | | ————— ——-
Let “periods”

be Universe; m=”days”; x=”rainy”; y=”tiresome”.
Some m

are x; &there4 Some x are y. All xm are y.
i.e.
 Some rainy periods are tiresome.

N.B. These are not legitimate Premisses, since the

Conclusion is really part of the second Premiss, so that

the

first Premiss is superfluous. This may be shown, in

letters, thus:– “All xm are y” contains “Some xm are

y”, which contains “Some x are y”. Or, in words, “All

rainy days are tiresome” contains “Some rainy days are

tiresome”, which contains “Some rainy periods are

tiresome”.
Moreover, the first Premiss, besides being superfluous,

is actually contained in the second; since it is

equivalent to “Some rainy days exist”, which, as we

know, is implied in the Proposition “All rainy days are

tiresome”.
Altogether, a most unsatisfactory Pair of Premisses!
————— | 0 | | | —|— | | | 1 | | | 20. |–

-|—|—|—| ——- | | 0 | 0 | | | 1 | | | —|— |
|—|—| | 0 | | | 0 | | ————— ——-
Let

“things” be Universe; m=”medicine”; x=”nasty”;

y=”senna”.
All m are x; &there4 All y are x. All y are m.

i.e.
 Senna is nasty.
[See remarks on No. 7, p 60.]
———-

—– | | | | —|— | | | 0 | 1 | | 21. |-1-|—|—|

—| ——- | | 0 | | | | | 1 | | —|— |
|—|—| | | | | | | ————— ——-
Let

“persons” be Universe; m=”Jews”; x=”rich”;

y=”Patagonians”.
Some m are x; &there4 Some x are y’. All

y are m’.
i.e.
 Some rich persons are not Patagonians.
————— | 0 | | | —|— | | | – | | 22. |—|

—|—|—| ——- | | 0 | 0 | | | | | | —|— |
|–

-|—| | 0 | | | 0 | | ————— ——-
Let

“creatures” be Universe; m=”teetotalers”; x=”that like

sugar”; y=”nightingales”.
All m are x; &there4 No y are

x’. No y are m’.
i.e.
 No nightingales dislike sugar.

————— | | | | —|— | | | 0 | 0 | | 23. |-1

-|—|—|—| ——- | | 0 | | | | | | | —|— |
|–

-|—| | | | | | | ————— ——-
Let “food” be

Universe; m=”wholesome”; x=”muffins”; y=”buns”.
No x are

m; All y are m.
There is ‘no information’ for the smaller

Diagram; so no Conclusion can be drawn.
————— |

| | | —|— | | | 0 | 0 | | 24. |—|—|—|—| —

—- | | 1 | | | | | | | —|— |

|—|—| | | | | 1 | | ————— ——-
Let

“creatures” be Universe; m=”that run well”; x=”fat”;

y=”greyhounds”.
No x are m; &there4 Some y are x’. Some y

are m.

i.e. Some greyhounds are not fat.

————— | | | | —|— | | | – | | 25. |-1-|–

-|—|—| ——- | | 0 | 0 | | | | | | —|— |
|—|

—| | | | | | | ————— ——-
Let “persons” be

Universe; m=”soldiers”; x=”that march”; y=”youths”.
All m

are x; Some y are m’.
There is ‘no information’ for the

smaller Diagram; so no Conclusion can be drawn.
——–

——- | 0 | 0 | | —|— | | | 0 | 1 | | 26. |—|–

-|—|—| ——- | | 0 | | | | 0 | 1 | | —|— |

|—|—| | 1 | | | 1 | | ————— ——- Let

“food” be Universe; m=”sweet”; x=”sugar”; y=”salt”. All

x are m; &there4 All x are y’. All y are m’. All y are

x’.
i.e. Sugar is not salt. Salt is not sugar.
————— | | | | —|— | | | 1 | 0 | | 27. |–

-|—|—|—| ——- | | | 0 | | | 1 | | | —|— |
|

—|—| | | | | | | ————— ——-
Let “Things”

be Universe; m=”eggs”; x=”hard-boiled”; y=”crackable”.

Some m are x; &there4 Some x are y. No m are y’.
i.e.
 Some hard-boiled things can be cracked.

————— | 0 | | | —|— | | | 0 | 0 | | 28. |

—|—|—|—| ——- | | | | | | 0 | | | —|— |
|

—|—| | 0 | | | | | ————— ——-
Let

“persons” be Universe; m=”Jews”; x=”that are in the

house”; y=”that are in the garden”.
No m are x; &there4

No x are y. No m’ are y.
i.e.
 No persons, that are in the house, are also in the

garden.
————— | 0 | 0 | | —|— | | | – | | 29. |–

-|—|—|—| ——- | | | | | | | | | —|— |
|—|

—| | 1 | 0 | | 1 | | ————— ——-
Let

“Things” be Universe; m=”noisy”; x=”battles”; y=”that

may escape notice”.
All x are m; &there4 Some x’ are y.

All m’ are y.
i.e.
 Some things, that are not battles, may escape notice.
————— | 0 | | | —|— | | | 0 | 0 | | 30. |

—|—|—|—| ——- | | 1 | | | | 0 | | | —|— |
|—|—| | 0 | | | 1 | | ————— ——-
Let

“persons” be Universe; m=”Jews”; x=”mad”; y=”Rabbis”.
No

m are x; &there4 All y are x’. All y are m.
i.e.
 All Rabbis are sane.
————— | | | | —|— | | | 1 | | | 31. |—|

—|—|—| ——- | | 0 | 0 | | | 1 | | | —|— |
|

—|—| | | | | | | ————— ——-
Let “Things”

be Universe; m=”fish”; x=”that can swim”; y=”skates”.
No

m are x’; &there4 Some y are x. Some y are m.
i.e.
 Some skates can swim.
————— | | | | —|— | | | 0 | 0 | | 32. |–

-|—|—|—| ——- | | 1 | | | | | | | —|— |
|–

-|—| | | | | 1 | | ————— ——-
Let “people”

be Universe; m=”passionate”; x=”reasonable”;

y=”orators”.
All m are x’; &there4 Some y are x’. Some y

are m.

The Game of Logic CHAPTER-II November 20, 2007

Posted by sma123 in Philosophy.
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CHAPTER II.
CROSS QUESTIONS.
“The Man in the Wilderness asked of me

‘How many strawberries grow in the sea?’” __________

1. Elementary.
1.
 What is an ‘Attribute’? Give examples.

2.
 When is it good sense to put “is” or “are” between two

names? Give examples.

3.
 When is it NOT good sense? Give examples.

4.
 When it is NOT good sense, what is the simplest

agreement to make, in order to make good sense?

5.
 Explain ‘Proposition’, ‘Term’, ‘Subject’, and

‘Predicate’. Give examples.

6.
 What are ‘Particular’ and ‘Universal’ Propositions?

Give examples.

7.
 Give a rule for knowing, when we look at the smaller

Diagram, what Attributes belong to the things in each

compartment.

8.
 What does “some” mean in Logic? [See pp. 55, 6]

9.
 In what sense do we use the word ‘Universe’ in this

Game?

10.
 What is a ‘Double’ Proposition? Give examples.

11.
 When is a class of Things said to be ‘exhaustively’

divided? Give examples.

12.
 Explain the phrase “sitting on the fence.”

13.
 What two partial Propositions make up, when taken

together, “all x are y”?

14.
 What are ‘Individual’ Propositions? Give examples.

15.
 What kinds of Propositions imply, in this Game, the

EXISTENCE of their Subjects?

16.
 When a Proposition contains more than two Attributes,

these Attributes may in some cases be re-arranged, and

shifted from one Term to the other. In what cases may

this be done? Give examples.

Break up each of the following into two partial

Propositions:

17.
 All tigers are fierce.

18.
 All hard-boiled eggs are unwholesome.

19.
 I am happy.

20.
 John is not at home.

[See pp. 56, 7]

21.
 Give a rule for knowing, when we look at the larger

Diagram, what Attributes belong to the Things contained

in each compartment.

22.
 Explain ‘Premisses’, ‘Conclusion’, and ‘Syllogism’.

Give examples.

23.
 Explain the phrases ‘Middle Term’ and ‘Middle Terms’.

24.
 In marking a pair of Premisses on the larger Diagram,

why is it best to mark NEGATIVE Propositions before

AFFIRMATIVE ones?

25.
 Why is it of no consequence to us, as Logicians,

whether the Premisses are true or false?

26.
 How can we work Syllogisms in which we are told that

“some x are y” is to be understood to mean “the

Attribute x, y are COMPATIBLE”, and “no x are y” to mean

“the Attributes x, y are INCOMPATIBLE”?

27.
 What are the two kinds of ‘Fallacies’?

28.
 How may we detect ‘Fallacious Premisses’?

29.
 How may we detect a ‘Fallacious Conclusion’?

30.
 Sometimes the Conclusion, offered to us, is not

identical with the correct Conclusion, and yet cannot be

fairly called ‘Fallacious’. When does this happen? And

what name may we give to such a Conclusion?
[See pp. 57-59]
2. Half of Smaller Diagram. Propositions to be

represented. ———– | | | | x | | | | –y—–y’-
1.
 Some x are not-y.

2.
 All x are not-y.

3.
 Some x are y, and some are not-y.

4.
 No x exist.

5.
 Some x exist.

6.
 No x are not-y.

7.
 Some x are not-y, and some x exist.

Taking x=”judges”; y=”just”;

8.
 No judges are just.

9.
 Some judges are unjust.

10.
 All judges are just.

Taking x=”plums”; y=”wholesome”;

11.
 Some plums are wholesome.

12.
 There are no wholesome plums.

13.
 Plums are some of them wholesome, and some not.

14.
 All plums are unwholesome.
[See pp. 59, 60]
—– | | | x | | |–y–| | | | x’ | |

—–

Taking y=”diligent students”; x=”successful”;
15.
 No diligent students are unsuccessful.

16.
 All diligent students are successful.

17.
 No students are diligent.

18.
 There are some diligent, but unsuccessful, students.

19.
 Some students are diligent. [See pp. 60, 1]
3. Half of Smaller Diagram.
Symbols to be interpreted.
———– | | | | x | | | | –y—–y’-
——- ——- | | | | | | 1. | | 0 | 2. | 0 | 0 | | |

| | | | ——- ——- ——- ——- | | | | | | 3. |

- | 4. | 0 | 1 | | | | | | | ——- ——-
Taking x=”good riddles”; y=”hard”; ——- ——- | | |

| | | 5. | 1 | | 6. | 1 | 0 | | | | | | | ——- —–

– ——- ——- | | | | | | 7. | 0 | 0 | 8. | 0 | | |

| | | | | ——- ——-
[See pp. 61, 2]
Taking x=”lobster”; y=”selfish”;
——-

——- | | | | | | 9. | | 1 | 10. | 0 | | | | | | | |

——- ——-
——- ——- | | | | | | 11. | 0 | 1 |

12. | 1 | 1 | | | | | | | ——- ——-

—– | | x | | | |–y’-| | | x’ | | | —–
Taking

y=”healthy people”; x=”happy”;
— — — — | 0 | | |

| 1 | | 0 | 13. |—| 14. |-1-| 15. |—| 16. |—| | 1

| | | | 1 | | | — — — —
[See p. 62]

4. Smaller Diagram.
Propositions to be represented.
———– | | | | x |

|–y–|–y’-| | x’ | | | | ———–

1.
 All y are x.
2.
 Some y are not-x.
3.
 No not-x are not-y.
4.
 Some x are not-y.
5.
 Some not-y are x.
6.
 No not-x are y.
7.
 Some not-x are not-y.
8.
 All not-x are not-y.
9.
 Some not-y exist.
10.
 No not-x exist.
11.
 Some y are x, and some are not-x.
12.
 All x are y, and all not-y are not-x.
[See pp. 62, 3]
Taking “nations” as Universe; x=”civilised”;

y=”warlike”;
13.
 No uncivilised nation is warlike.
14.
 All unwarlike nations are uncivilised.
15.
 Some nations are unwarlike.
16.
 All warlike nations are civilised, and all civilised

nations are warlike.

17.
 No nation is uncivilised.

Taking “crocodiles” as Universe; x=”hungry”; and

y=”amiable”;

18.
 All hungry crocodiles are unamiable.

19.
 No crocodiles are amiable when hungry.

20.
 Some crocodiles, when not hungry, are amiable; but some

are not.

21.
 No crocodiles are amiable, and some are hungry.

22.
 All crocodiles, when not hungry, are amiable; and all

unamiable crocodiles are hungry.

23.
 Some hungry crocodiles are amiable, and some that are

not hungry are unamiable. [See pp. 63, 4]
5. Smaller Diagram.
Symbols to be interpreted.
———– | | | | x | |–y–|–y’-| | x’ | | | | —-

——-
——- ——- | | | | | | 1. |—|—| 2. |—|—| |

1 | | | | 0 | ——- ——- ——- ——- | | 1 | |

| | 3. |—|—| 4. |—|—| | | 0 | | 0 | 0 | ——-

——-
Taking “houses” as Universe; x=”built of brick”; and

y=”two-storied”; interpret ——- ——- | 0 | | | | |

5. |—|—| 6. |—|—| | 0 | | | – | ——- —|—

——- ——- | | 0 | | | | 7. |—|—| 8. |—|—|

| | | | 0 | 1 | ——- ——- [See p. 65] Taking

“boys” as Universe; x=”fat”; and y=”active”; interpret

——- ——- | 1 | 1 | | | 0 | 9. |—|—| 10. |—

|—| | | | | | 1 | ——- ——- ——- ——- | 0

| 1 | | 1 | | 11. |—|—| 12. |—|—| | | 0 | | 0 |

1 | ——- ——- Taking “cats” as Universe; x=”green

-eyed”; and y=”good-tempered”; interpret ——- ——-

| 0 | 0 | | | 1 | 13. |—|—| 14. |—|—| | | 0 | |

1 | | ——- ——- ——- ——- | 1 | | | 0 | 1 |

15. |—|—| 16. |—|—| | | 0 | | 1 | 0 | ——- -

—— [See pp. 65, 6]
6. Larger Diagram.
Propositions to be represented.
———– | | | | –x– | | | | | | |–y–m–y’-| | |

| | | | –x’- | | | | ———–
1.
 No x are m.

2.
 Some y are m’.

3.
 All m are x’.

4.
 No m’ are y’.

5.
 No m are x; All y are m.

6.
 Some x are m; No y are m.

7.
 All m are x’; No m are y.

8.
 No x’ are m; No y’ are m’.
[See pp. 67,8]
Taking

“rabbits” as Universe; m=”greedy”; x=”old”; and

y=”black”; represent
9.
 No old rabbits are greedy.
10.
 Some not-greedy rabbits are black.
11.
 All white rabbits are free from greediness.
12.
 All greedy rabbits are young.
13.
 No old rabbits are greedy; All black rabbits are

greedy.
14.
 All rabbits, that are not greedy, are black; No old

rabbits are free from greediness.
Taking “birds” as Universe; m=”that sing loud”; x=”well

-fed”; and y=”happy”; represent

15.
 All well-fed birds sing loud; No birds, that sing loud,

are unhappy.

16.
 All birds, that do not sing loud, are unhappy; No well

-fed birds fail to sing loud.

Taking “persons” as Universe; m=”in the house”;

x=”John”; and y=”having a tooth-ache”; represent

17.
 John is in the house; Everybody in the house is

suffering from tooth-ache.

18.
 There is no one in the house but John; Nobody, out of

the house, has a tooth-ache.

[See pp. 68-70]
Taking “persons” as Universe; m=”I”;

x=”that has taken a walk”; y=”that feels better”;

represent
19.
 I have been out for a walk; I feel much better.

Choosing your own ‘Universe’ &c., represent

20.
 I sent him to bring me a kitten; He brought me a kettle

by mistake. [See pp. 70, 1]
7. Both Diagrams to be employed.
———– | | | ———– | –x– | | | | | | | | |

| x | |–y–m–y’-| |–y–|–y’-| | | | | | | x’ | | –

x’- | | | | | | | ———– ———–
N.B. In each Question, a small Diagram should be drawn,

for x and y only, and marked in accordance with the

given large Diagram: and then as many Propositions as

possible, for x and y, should be read off from this

small Diagram.
———– ———– |0 | | | | | | –|– | | –|– |

| |0 | 0| | | |0 | 1| | 1. |–|–|–|–| 2. |–|–|–|-

-| | |1 | | | | |0 | | | | –|– | | –|– | |0 | | | |

| ———– ———–
[See p. 72]
———– ———– | | | | | 0| | –|– | | –|– |

| |0 | 0| | | | | | | 3. |–|–|–|–| 4. |–|–|–|–|

| |1 | 0| | | |0 | | | | –|– | | –|– | | | | | | 0|

———– ———– Mark, in a large Diagram, the

following pairs of Propositions from the preceding

Section: then mark a small Diagram in accordance with

it, &c.
5. No. 13. [see p. 49] 9. No. 17. 6. No. 14. 10. No. 18.

7. No. 15. 11. No. 19. [see p. 50] 8. No. 16. 12. No.

20.
Mark, on a large Diagram, the following Pairs of

Propositions: then mark a small Diagram, &c. These are,

in fact, Pairs of PREMISSES for Syllogisms: and the

results, read off from the small Diagram, are the

CONCLUSIONS.
13.
 No exciting books suit feverish patients; Unexciting

books make one drowsy.

14.
 Some, who deserve the fair, get their deserts; None but

the brave deserve the fair.

15.
 No children are patient; No impatient person can sit

still. [See pp. 72-5]

16.
 All pigs are fat; No skeletons are fat.

17.
 No monkeys are soldiers; All monkeys are mischievous.

18.
 None of my cousins are just; No judges are unjust.

19.
 Some days are rainy; Rainy days are tiresome.

20.
 All medicine is nasty; Senna is a medicine.

21.
 Some Jews are rich; All Patagonians are Gentiles.

22.
 All teetotalers like sugar; No nightingale drinks wine.

23.
 No muffins are wholesome; All buns are unwholesome.

24.
 No fat creatures run well; Some greyhounds run well.

25.
 All soldiers march; Some youths are not soldiers.

26.
 Sugar is sweet; Salt is not sweet.

27.
 Some eggs are hard-boiled; No eggs are uncrackable.

28.
 There are no Jews in the house; There are no Gentiles

in the garden. [See pp. 75-82]

29.
 All battles are noisy; What makes no noise may escape

notice.

30.
 No Jews are mad; All Rabbis are Jews.

31.
 There are no fish that cannot swim; Some skates are

fish.

32.
 All passionate people are unreasonable; Some orators

are passionate.